The great multitude from all nations that stood before God’s throne, which John saw, cried out to ascribe salvation to God and to the Lamb of God. There has not been, nor ever will be, a human being of any nation or language or people group saved but by the blood of Jesus Christ. He alone, and the Father who sent Him, gain the glory for salvation, along with the Holy Spirit who applies that salvation to men’s hearts.
May we be among that great multitude, Lord, who will cry out eternal praises to you for the great salvation you have wrought. Let us look forward to that day, and yet, not wait till then to begin to praise you. Take away the stain of pride and self-praise, and let us joyfully give all the glory to you alone. Amen.
And cried with a loud voice, saying, Salvation to our God which sitteth upon the throne, and unto the Lamb. Revelation 7:10
Hurricane Agnes It’s Pennsylvania
Share what you know about the year you were born. June 1972
Hurricane Agnes, a Category 1 storm, hit the Florida panhandle and caused millions of dollars in damage.
In 1972, Tropical Storm Agnes caused severe flooding in Pennsylvania, including the Susquehanna River. The storm hit Pennsylvania on June 22, 1972, and dumped 19 inches of rain from Florida to New York between June 19–24. The Susquehanna River’s flood elevations reached the highest ever recorded in June 1972, surpassing flood stage by 15 feet on June 24. The flood also caused billions of gallons of water to rush through Harrisburg.
1972 saw a number of events in Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania: June 1972 Tropical storm Agnes caused severe flooding in the Wilkes-Barre area, including South Main Street. Flood elevations were about eight feet higher than those of 1865 and 1936. More than 100,000 people were evacuated due to flooding, and 122 people died. Summer 1972 The Flood Recovery Task Force, a non-profit organization, was formed to help rebuild the Wyoming Valley after the storm.
When Hurricane Agnes flooded the Wyoming Valley, Wilkes College sustained more than $10 million in damage to 58 buildings. In the immediate aftermath of the flood, however, Wilkes’ Second President Francis J. Michelini decided that the most important mission was learning; the relationship between students and faculty were more important than brightly lit classrooms.
With this in mind, the college’s first summer session reopened less than a week and a half after the flood, with a majority of classes held on the second and third floors of buildings. While some faculty and students resumed scholarly pursuits, other students gave up summer jobs and vacations to return to campus to shovel out mud-filled basements, remove and wash off dirty furniture and desks and assisted in overall clean-up efforts. Many alumni also pitched in with cleanup efforts as well as monetary support to aid Wilkes in flood recovery. “Operation Snapback,” Michelini’s action plan to fundraise after the flood, generated millions of dollars to fix building damages and provide financial aid for students affected by the flood.
Hurricane Agnes was the costliest hurricane to hit the United States at the time, causing an estimated $2.1 billion in damage. The hurricane’s death toll was 128.[1] The effects of Agnes were widespread, from the Caribbean to Canada, with much of the east coast of the United States affected. Damage was heaviest in Pennsylvania, where Agnes was the state’s wettest tropical cyclone. Due to the significant effects, the name Agnes was retired in the spring of 1973.
Hurricane Agnes
Agnes near peak intensity in the Gulf of Mexico on June 18 Meteorological history Formed June 14, 1972 Extratropical June 23, 1972 Dissipated July 6, 1972 Category 1 hurricane 1-minute sustained (SSHWS/NWS) Highest winds 85 mph (140 km/h) Lowest pressure 977 mbar (hPa); 28.85 inHg Overall effects Fatalities 128 direct Damage $2.1 billion (1972 USD) Areas affected Yucatán Peninsula, Western Cuba, East Coast of the United States, Pennsylvania, Atlantic Canada, Iceland, British Isles IBTrACSEdit this at Wikidata Part of the 1972 Atlantic hurricane season Agnes was the second tropical cyclone and first named storm of the 1972 Atlantic hurricane season. It developed as a tropical depression on June 14 from the interaction of a polar front and an upper trough over the Yucatán Peninsula. The storm emerged into the western Caribbean Sea on June 15, and strengthened into Tropical Storm Agnes the next day. Thereafter, Agnes slowly curved northward and passed just west of Cuba on June 17. Early on June 18, the storm intensified enough to be upgraded to Hurricane Agnes. Heading northward, the hurricane eventually made landfall near Panama City, Florida, late on June 19. After moving inland, Agnes rapidly weakened and was only a tropical depression when it entered Georgia. The weakening trend halted as the storm crossed over Georgia and into South Carolina. While over eastern North Carolina, Agnes re-strengthened into a tropical storm on June 21, as a result of baroclinic activity. Early the following day, the storm emerged into the Atlantic Ocean before re-curving northwestward and making landfall near New York City as a strong tropical storm. Agnes quickly became an extratropical cyclone on June 23, and tracked to the northwest of Great Britain, before being absorbed by another extratropical cyclone on July 6.
Though it moved slowly across the Yucatán Peninsula, the damage Agnes caused in Mexico is unknown. Although the storm bypassed the tip of Cuba, heavy rainfall occurred, killing seven people. In Florida, Agnes caused a significant tornado outbreak, with at least 26 confirmed twisters, two of which were spawned in Georgia. The tornadoes and two initially unconfirmed tornadoes in Florida alone resulted in over $4.5 million (1972 USD) in damage and six fatalities. At least 2,082 structures in Florida suffered either major damage or were destroyed. About 1,355 other dwellings experienced minor losses. Though Agnes made landfall as a hurricane, no hurricane-force winds were reported. Along the coast abnormally high tides resulted in extensive damage, especially between Apalachicola and Cedar Key. Light to moderate rainfall was reported in Florida, though no significant flooding occurred. In Georgia, damage was limited to two tornadoes, which caused approximately $275,000 in losses. Minimal effects were also recorded in Alabama, Connecticut, Delaware, Rhode Island, South Carolina, and Tennessee; though one fatality was reported in Delaware. The most significant effects, by far, occurred in Pennsylvania, mostly due to intense flooding. The hurricane severely flooded the Susquehanna River and the Lackawanna River causing major damage to the Wilkes-Barre/Scranton metropolitan area. In both Pennsylvania and New Jersey combined, about 43,594 structures were either destroyed or significantly damaged. In Canada, a mobile home was toppled, killing two people
Hurricane Agnes was the costliest hurricane to hit the United States at the time, causing an estimated $2.1 billion in damage. The hurricane’s death toll was 128.[1] The effects of Agnes were widespread, from the Caribbean to Canada, with much of the east coast of the United States affected. Damage was heaviest in Pennsylvania, where Agnes was the state’s wettest tropical cyclone. Due to the significant effects, the name Agnes was retired in the spring of 1973.
caused approximately $275,000 in losses. Minimal effects were also recorded in Alabama, Connecticut, Delaware, Rhode Island, South Carolina, and Tennessee; though one fatality was reported in Delaware. The most significant effects, by far, occurred in Pennsylvania, mostly due to intense flooding. The hurricane severely flooded the Susquehanna River and the Lackawanna River causing major damage to the Wilkes-Barre/Scranton metropolitan area. In both Pennsylvania and New Jersey combined, about 43,594 structures were either destroyed or significantly damaged. In Canada, a mobile home was toppled, killing two people.
We’re getting closer! I’m sure the prophecies we’ve been reading the past few days are the same ones that Jesus mentioned to the disciples on the road to Emmaus, and have been examined over the years, as those that point to the Messiah. Malachi is not one of the Major Prophets, and this book is placed last in the Old Testament. He is upset that they Israelites upon returning from exile pick up where they left off with abuses by their leaders as well as by the people. They are impatient for the Messiah to appear. So Malachi gives us this prophecy which lets the people know that the Lord, whom they seek will appear. First, John, the messenger, comes to prepare the way, and then Jesus appears in the temple. John is the last prophet of the first covenant, and Jesus brings us the new. There was a time when people thought that we didn’t need the Old Testament, the old covenant, just the New Testament. But wiser heads prevailed! How could we understand the New without the Old. Jesus himself said that he had not come to abolish the law – the first covenant – but to fulfill it. This means that we can’t just throw out the old. How else would we know of Abraham or Moses, King David and Solomon, the prophets or the times they were faithful and the times they went astray and needed God to save them. All of this is important for us, as we also are sometimes faithful and sometimes we need saving from ourselves. We learn from both the old and the new and are called to follow Jesus, as he followed the teachings of the Law.
The Bible contains the sacred scriptures of Judaism and Christianity and has long been the most available, familiar, and dependable source and arbiter of intellectual, moral, and spiritual ideals in the West. The great biblical themes are God, his revealed works of creation, provision, judgment, and deliverance, his covenant, and his promises. The Bible sees what happens to humankind in the light of God’s nature, righteousness, faithfulness, mercy, and love.
When was the Bible written? Parts of the Hebrew Bible were written in perhaps the 10th century BCE. The final redaction and canonization of the Torah (the first five books of the Bible) most likely took place during the Babylonian Exile (6th–5th century BCE). The entire Hebrew Bible was complete by about 100 CE.
The Hebrew Bible was written in Hebrew. Its Greek translation, the Septuagint, made it accessible in the Hellenistic period (c. 300 BCE–c. 300 CE) and provided a language for the New Testament and for the Christian liturgy and theology of the first three centuries CE. The Bible in Latin, the Vulgate, shaped the thought and life of Western people for a thousand years. Bible translation led to the study and literary development of many languages.
Traditionally, the Jews have divided their scriptures into three parts: the Torah (the “Law,” or Pentateuch), the Neviʾim (“Prophets”), and the Ketuvim (“Writings,” or Hagiographa). The Pentateuch, together with the Book of Joshua (hence the name Hexateuch), can be seen as the account of how the Israelites became a nation and of how they possessed the Promised Land. The division designated as the “Prophets” continues the story of Israel in the Promised Land, describing the establishment and development of the monarchy and presenting the messages of the prophets to the people. The “Writings” include speculation on the place of evil and death in the scheme of things (Job and Ecclesiastes), the poetical works, and some additional historical books.
In the Apocrypha of the Old Testament, various types of literature are represented; the purpose of the Apocrypha seems to have been to fill in some of the gaps left by the indisputably canonical books and to carry the history of Israel to the 2nd century BCE.
Bible scripture scripture The New Testament is by far the shorter portion of the Christian Bible, but, through its associations with the spread of Christianity, it has wielded an influence far out of proportion to its modest size. Like the Old Testament, the New Testament is a collection of books, including a variety of early Christian literature. The four Gospels deal with the life, the person, and the teachings of Jesus, as he was remembered by the Christian community. The Acts of the Apostles carries the story of Christianity from the Resurrection of Jesus to the end of the career of St. Paul. The various Letters, or Epistles, are correspondence by various leaders of the early Christian church, chief among them St. Paul, applying the message of the church to the sundry needs and problems of early Christian congregations. The Book of Revelation (the Apocalypse) is the only canonical representative of a large genre of apocalyptic literature that appeared in the early Christian movement.
Jonah, (flourished 785 BCE), one of the 12 Minor Prophets in the Hebrew Bible and Christian Old Testament. His narrative is part of a larger book, The Twelve, in the Jewish canon, and stands alone as the Book of Jonah in Christian scripture. The account, which opposes the narrow Jewish nationalism of the time, was probably written in the 5th or 4th century BCE. Jonah is also mentioned in 2 Kings 14:25.
Historical context Jonah was a Jewish prophet and is identified as the son of Amittai. Given the historical information conveyed in the 2 Kings passage, he may have lived about 785 BCE. At that time the Assyrian empire was one of the cruelest and most aggressive in Mesopotamia. The Assyrians had destroyed scores of cities and villages and forcibly relocated or enslaved other groups of people, cutting a large swath along the Fertile Crescent. In the 720s BCE, they attacked and conquered Israel, the prosperous northernmost Jewish kingdom, and the southern kingdom, Judah, was reduced to paying heavy tribute. Assyria was thus one of the Jews’ most feared and hated enemies. Despite being set during the years of Assyrian reign, the story of Jonah was likely written about the 5th or 4th century BCE, after the Babylonian Exile, when memories of the cruelty of Assyrian tyranny would have lingered in legend and oral history.
Jonah Synopsis According to the biblical account, God orders Jonah to warn the citizens of Nineveh, a principal Assyrian city, to repent of their wickedness, but Jonah refuses to believe that these hated people deserve salvation. Rather than traveling east to the landlocked city of Nineveh, he instead runs west to the port of Joppa and boards a ship headed for Tarshish across the Mediterranean Sea. A storm threatens the ship, and the sailors draw lots to find out which man is the cause of their misfortune. The lot falls to Jonah, who tells the sailors that the storm is his fault and instructs them to throw him overboard. Once Jonah is thrown into the sea, the storm subsides, and the sailors worship the Hebrew God.
Jonah Home Philosophy & Religion Religious Personages & Scholars History & Society Jonah biblical figure Also known as: Jonas Written by Fact-checked by Last Updated: Aug 22, 2023 • Article History Jonah, (flourished 785 BCE), one of the 12 Minor Prophets in the Hebrew Bible and Christian Old Testament. His narrative is part of a larger book, The Twelve, in the Jewish canon, and stands alone as the Book of Jonah in Christian scripture. The account, which opposes the narrow Jewish nationalism of the time, was probably written in the 5th or 4th century BCE. Jonah is also mentioned in 2 Kings 14:25.
Jonah and the Whale Jonah and the Whale See all media Category: History & Society Flourished: c.800 BCE – c.701 BCE Historical context Jonah was a Jewish prophet and is identified as the son of Amittai. Given the historical information conveyed in the 2 Kings passage, he may have lived about 785 BCE. At that time the Assyrian empire was one of the cruelest and most aggressive in Mesopotamia. The Assyrians had destroyed scores of cities and villages and forcibly relocated or enslaved other groups of people, cutting a large swath along the Fertile Crescent. In the 720s BCE, they attacked and conquered Israel, the prosperous northernmost Jewish kingdom, and the southern kingdom, Judah, was reduced to paying heavy tribute. Assyria was thus one of the Jews’ most feared and hated enemies. Despite being set during the years of Assyrian reign, the story of Jonah was likely written about the 5th or 4th century BCE, after the Babylonian Exile, when memories of the cruelty of Assyrian tyranny would have lingered in legend and oral history.
Gutenberg Bible More From Britannica biblical literature: Jonah Synopsis According to the biblical account, God orders Jonah to warn the citizens of Nineveh, a principal Assyrian city, to repent of their wickedness, but Jonah refuses to believe that these hated people deserve salvation. Rather than traveling east to the landlocked city of Nineveh, he instead runs west to the port of Joppa and boards a ship headed for Tarshish across the Mediterranean Sea. A storm threatens the ship, and the sailors draw lots to find out which man is the cause of their misfortune. The lot falls to Jonah, who tells the sailors that the storm is his fault and instructs them to throw him overboard. Once Jonah is thrown into the sea, the storm subsides, and the sailors worship the Hebrew God.
Jonah mosaic
Alone in the sea, Jonah is swallowed by a huge fish and spends three days and nights in its belly, where he prays for deliverance. God commands the fish to spit the man out on land, and finally Jonah heads to Nineveh to comply with God’s original instructions to him. Upon hearing the prophet’s warning, the king and the people of Nineveh repent, and God does not punish them.
Jonah is angry with God for the mercy shown to the Ninevites and flees the city to see if God will perhaps still destroy it. Outside of the city, the prophet builds a crude shelter for himself, and God sends a plant to shade the prophet from the sun. Jonah is pleased with his shady hovel, but then God sends a worm to eat the plant, and it dies. Exposed to the heat and the wind, Jonah is angered by the loss of his plant. God chastises him for being concerned about a wild plant but not about the many thousands of citizens in the great city.
Analysis The book is unusual in that Jonah, an Israelite prophet, was called to preach repentance to those who were not Jewish, breaking out of the contemporary pattern of Hebrew nationalism. Other prophets of the time spoke specifically to the Israelite people, and it was a fairly radical idea that God might look with favour on other nations and peoples, especially the Assyrians. Thus Jonah was reluctant to follow the command to prophesy to the Ninevites. While Jonah would rather see his own life destroyed than extend grace to the Assyrians, the book portrays his God as forgiving, showing grace and mercy to even the vilest and cruelest of people.
Melchizedek, also spelled Melchisedech, in the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament), a figure of importance in biblical tradition because he was both king and priest, was connected with Jerusalem, and was revered by Abraham, who paid a tithe to him. He appears as a person only in an interpolated vignette (Genesis 14:18–20) of the story of Abraham rescuing his kidnapped nephew, Lot, by defeating a coalition of Mesopotamian kings under Chedorlaomer.
In the episode, Melchizedek meets Abraham on his return from battle, gives him bread and wine (which has been interpreted by some Christian scholars as a precursor of the Eucharist, so that Melchizedek’s name entered the canon of the Roman mass), and blesses Abraham in the name of “God Most High” (in Hebrew El ʿElyon). In return, Abraham gives him a tithe of the booty.
Encyclopedia Britannica HomeQuizzes & GamesHistory & SocietyScience & TechBiographiesAnimals & NatureGeography & TravelArts & CultureMoneyVideos Bible Home Philosophy & Religion Scriptures History & Society Bible sacred text Written and fact-checked by Last Updated: Article History Top Questions Why is the Bible important? The Bible contains the sacred scriptures of Judaism and Christianity and has long been the most available, familiar, and dependable source and arbiter of intellectual, moral, and spiritual ideals in the West. The great biblical themes are God, his revealed works of creation, provision, judgment, and deliverance, his covenant, and his promises. The Bible sees what happens to humankind in the light of God’s nature, righteousness, faithfulness, mercy, and love.
What language was the Bible originally written in? The Hebrew Bible was written in Hebrew. Its Greek translation, the Septuagint, made it accessible in the Hellenistic period (c. 300 BCE–c. 300 CE) and provided a language for the New Testament and for the Christian liturgy and theology of the first three centuries CE. The Bible in Latin, the Vulgate, shaped the thought and life of Western people for a thousand years. Bible translation led to the study and literary development of many languages.
How is the Bible organized? When was the Bible written? What does the Bible say? Moses and the Israelites Moses and the Israelites Bible Bible Philip II; Bible Philip II; Bible Bible, the sacred scriptures of Judaism and Christianity. The Christian Bible consists of the Old Testament and the New Testament, with the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox versions of the Old Testament being slightly larger because of their acceptance of certain books and parts of books considered apocryphal by Protestants. The Hebrew Bible includes only books known to Christians as the Old Testament. The arrangements of the Jewish and Christian canons differ considerably. The Protestant and Roman Catholic arrangements more nearly match one another.
A brief treatment of the Bible follows. For full treatment, see biblical literature.
mosaic: Christianity More From Britannica Christianity: Biblical foundations Consider the Bible’s Old Testament as a literary masterpiece dramatized by paintings, music, and sculpture Consider the Bible’s Old Testament as a literary masterpiece dramatized by paintings, music, and sculptureSee all videos for this article Examine the Old Testament’s The Book of Proverbs and other books through a literary lens Examine the Old Testament’s The Book of Proverbs and other books through a literary lensSee all videos for this article
Traditionally, the Jews have divided their scriptures into three parts: the Torah (the “Law,” or Pentateuch), the Neviʾim (“Prophets”), and the Ketuvim (“Writings,” or Hagiographa). The Pentateuch, together with the Book of Joshua (hence the name Hexateuch), can be seen as the account of how the Israelites became a nation and of how they possessed the Promised Land. The division designated as the “Prophets” continues the story of Israel in the Promised Land, describing the establishment and development of the monarchy and presenting the messages of the prophets to the people. The “Writings” include speculation on the place of evil and death in the scheme of things (Job and Ecclesiastes), the poetical works, and some additional historical books.
In the Apocrypha of the Old Testament, various types of literature are represented; the purpose of the Apocrypha seems to have been to fill in some of the gaps left by the indisputably canonical books and to carry the history of Israel to the 2nd century BCE.
Bible Bible scripture scripture The New Testament is by far the shorter portion of the Christian Bible, but, through its associations with the spread of Christianity, it has wielded an influence far out of proportion to its modest size. Like the Old Testament, the New Testament is a collection of books, including a variety of early Christian literature. The four Gospels deal with the life, the person, and the teachings of Jesus, as he was remembered by the Christian community. The Acts of the Apostles carries the story of Christianity from the Resurrection of Jesus to the end of the career of St. Paul. The various Letters, or Epistles, are correspondence by various leaders of the early Christian church, chief among them St. Paul, applying the message of the church to the sundry needs and problems of early Christian congregations. The Book of Revelation (the Apocalypse) is the only canonical representative of a large genre of apocalyptic literature that appeared in the early Christian movement.
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica This article was most recently revised and updated by Michael Ray. Jonah Home Philosophy & Religion Religious Personages & Scholars History & Society Jonah biblical figure Also known as: Jonas Written by Fact-checked by Last UpdArticle History Jonah, (flourished 785 BCE), one of the 12 Minor Prophets in the Hebrew Bible and Christian Old Testament. His narrative is part of a larger book, The Twelve, in the Jewish canon, and stands alone as the Book of Jonah in Christian scripture. The account, which opposes the narrow Jewish nationalism of the time, was probably written in the 5th or 4th century BCE. Jonah is also mentioned in 2 Kings 14:25.
Jonah and the Whale Jonah and the Whale See all media Category: History & Society Flourished: c.800 BCE – c.701 BCE Historical context Jonah was a Jewish prophet and is identified as the son of Amittai. Given the historical information conveyed in the 2 Kings passage, he may have lived about 785 BCE. At that time the Assyrian empire was one of the cruelest and most aggressive in Mesopotamia. The Assyrians had destroyed scores of cities and villages and forcibly relocated or enslaved other groups of people, cutting a large swath along the Fertile Crescent. In the 720s BCE, they attacked and conquered Israel, the prosperous northernmost Jewish kingdom, and the southern kingdom, Judah, was reduced to paying heavy tribute. Assyria was thus one of the Jews’ most feared and hated enemies. Despite being set during the years of Assyrian reign, the story of Jonah was likely written about the 5th or 4th century BCE, after the Babylonian Exile, when memories of the cruelty of Assyrian tyranny would have lingered in legend and oral history.
Gutenberg Bible More From Britannica biblical literature: Jonah Synopsis According to the biblical account, God orders Jonah to warn the citizens of Nineveh, a principal Assyrian city, to repent of their wickedness, but Jonah refuses to believe that these hated people deserve salvation. Rather than traveling east to the landlocked city of Nineveh, he instead runs west to the port of Joppa and boards a ship headed for Tarshish across the Mediterranean Sea. A storm threatens the ship, and the sailors draw lots to find out which man is the cause of their misfortune. The lot falls to Jonah, who tells the sailors that the storm is his fault and instructs them to throw him overboard. Once Jonah is thrown into the sea, the storm subsides, and the sailors worship the Hebrew God.
Jonah mosaic Jonah mosaic Alone in the sea, Jonah is swallowed by a huge fish and spends three days and nights in its belly, where he prays for deliverance. God commands the fish to spit the man out on land, and finally Jonah heads to Nineveh to comply with God’s original instructions to him. Upon hearing the prophet’s warning, the king and the people of Nineveh repent, and God does not punish them.
The Prophet Jonah Before the Walls of Nineveh The Prophet Jonah Before the Walls of Nineveh Jonah is angry with God for the mercy shown to the Ninevites and flees the city to see if God will perhaps still destroy it. Outside of the city, the prophet builds a crude shelter for himself, and God sends a plant to shade the prophet from the sun. Jonah is pleased with his shady hovel, but then God sends a worm to eat the plant, and it dies. Exposed to the heat and the wind, Jonah is angered by the loss of his plant. God chastises him for being concerned about a wild plant but not about the many thousands of citizens in the great city.
Analysis The book is unusual in that Jonah, an Israelite prophet, was called to preach repentance to those who were not Jewish, breaking out of the contemporary pattern of Hebrew nationalism. Other prophets of the time spoke specifically to the Israelite people, and it was a fairly radical idea that God might look with favour on other nations and peoples, especially the Assyrians. Thus Jonah was reluctant to follow the command to prophesy to the Ninevites. While Jonah would rather see his own life destroyed than extend grace to the Assyrians, the book portrays his God as forgiving, showing grace and mercy to even the vilest and cruelest of people.
Are you a student? Get Britannica Premium for only $24.95 – a 67% discount! Jennifer Murtoff Melchizedek Home Politics, Law & Government World Leaders Kings History & Society Melchizedek biblical figure Also known as: Melchisedech Written and fact-checked by Last Updated: Article History Top Questions Why was Melchizedek important? What does the name Melchizedek mean? What was Melchizedek’s religion? Where was Melchizedek from? Summary Read a brief summary of this topic Melchizedek Melchizedek Melchizedek, also spelled Melchisedech, in the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament), a figure of importance in biblical tradition because he was both king and priest, was connected with Jerusalem, and was revered by Abraham, who paid a tithe to him. He appears as a person only in an interpolated vignette (Genesis 14:18–20) of the story of Abraham rescuing his kidnapped nephew, Lot, by defeating a coalition of Mesopotamian kings under Chedorlaomer.
In the episode, Melchizedek meets Abraham on his return from battle, gives him bread and wine (which has been interpreted by some Christian scholars as a precursor of the Eucharist, so that Melchizedek’s name entered the canon of the Roman mass), and blesses Abraham in the name of “God Most High” (in Hebrew El ʿElyon). In return, Abraham gives him a tithe of the booty.
Melchizedek is an old Canaanite name meaning “My King Is [the god] Sedek” or “My King Is Righteousness” (the meaning of the similar Hebrew cognate). Salem, of which he is said to be king, is very probably Jerusalem. Psalm 76:2 refers to Salem in a way that implies that it is synonymous with Jerusalem, and the reference in Genesis 14:17 to “the King’s Valley” further confirms this identification. The god whom Melchizedek serves as priest is “El ʿElyon,” again a name of Canaanite origin, probably designating the high god of their pantheon. (Later, the Hebrews adapted another Canaanite name as an appellation for God.)
For Abraham to recognize the authority and authenticity of a Canaanite priest-king is startling and has no parallel in biblical literature. This story may have reached its final formulation in the days of King David, serving as an apologia for David’s making Jerusalem his headquarters and setting up the priesthood there. Abraham’s paying tribute to a Jerusalem priest-king then would anticipate the time when Abraham’s descendants would bring tithes to the priests of Jerusalem ministering in the sanctuary at the Davidic capital. The story may also relate to the conflict between the Levite priests descended from Abraham and the Zadokite priests of Jerusalem, who later changed their allegiance to Yahweh, the Hebrew god. The Zadokites monopolized the Jerusalem priesthood until forcibly taken away to Babylon, at which time Levite priests asserted their own hegemony; the Melchizedek episode could reveal the reascendancy of Zadokite power.
The biblical account also poses textual problems. Abraham paying a tithe to Melchizedek is an interpretation, though a likely one, of the original biblical text, in which the matter is ambiguous; it seems incongruous that Abraham gives a tenth of the booty to Melchizedek and then refuses to take any of it for himself (verses 22–23). Again, some scholars have asserted that it would be unusual for an author of Davidic times to construct a narrative with a Canaanite protagonist.
Psalm 110, in referring to a future messiah of the Davidic line, alludes to the priest-king Melchizedek as a prototype of this messiah. This allusion led the author of the Letter to the Hebrews in the New Testament to translate the name Melchizedek as “king of righteousness” and Salem as “peace” so that Melchizedek is made to foreshadow Christ, stated to be the true king of righteousness and peace (Hebrews 7:2). According to the analogy, just as Abraham, the ancestor of the Levites, paid a tithe to Melchizedek and was therefore his inferior, so the Melchizedek-like priesthood of Christ is superior to that of the Levites. Furthermore, just as the Old Testament assigns no birth or death date to Melchizedek, so is the priesthood of Christ eternal.
Exodus, the liberation of the people of Israel from slavery in Egypt in the 13th century BCE, under the leadership of Moses; also, the Old Testament book of the same name. The English name of the book derives from the Septuagint (Greek) use of “exodus” to designate the deliverance of the Israelites from Egyptian bondage and their safe passage through the Sea of Reeds (traditionally mislocated as the Red Sea). The Hebrew title of the work is Shemot (Names).
Chapters 1–18 narrate the history of the Egyptian bondage, the Exodus from Egypt, and the journey to Mount Sinai under the leadership of Moses. The second half of the book tells of the Covenant that was established between God and Israel at Sinai and promulgates laws for the ordering of Israel’s life.
Since Exodus continues the sacred story of the divine promise to Israel begun in Genesis, it must be seen as part of a larger literary unit that is variously understood to include the first four, five, or six books of the Bible.
Scholars have identified three literary traditions in Exodus, designated by the letters J, E, and P. The J strand, so called because it uses the name Yahweh (Jahweh in German) for God, is a Judaean rendition of the sacred story, perhaps written as early as 950 BCE. The E strand, which designates God as Elohim, is a version of the sacred story from the northern kingdom of Israel, written in about 900–750 BCE. The P strand, so called because of its cultic interests and regulations for priests, is usually dated in the 5th century BC and is regarded as the law upon which Ezra and Nehemiah based their reform. Each of these strands preserves materials much older than the time of their incorporation into a written work. Exodus thus conserves extremely old oral and written history. (See also Torah.)
Book of Ruth, Old Testament book belonging to the third section of the biblical canon, known as the Ketuvim, or Writings. In the Hebrew Bible, Ruth stands with the Song of Solomon, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, and Esther; together they make up the Megillot, five scrolls that are read at prescribed times on Jewish religious festivals. Ruth is the festal scroll for Shavuot, the Feast of Weeks, 50 days after Passover.
The book is named for its central character, a Moabite woman who married the son of a Judaean couple living in Moab. After the death of her husband, Ruth moved to Judah with her mother-in-law, Naomi, instead of remaining with her own people. Ruth then became the wife of Boaz, a wealthy kinsman of her former husband, and bore Obed, who, according to the final verses of the book, was the grandfather of David. This attempt to make Ruth an ancestor of David is considered a late addition to a book that itself must be dated in the late 5th or 4th century BC. Its author apparently wrote the story to correct the particularism that characterized Judaism after the Babylonian Exile and the rebuilding of the Temple of Jerusalem (516 BC). The redactor who added the genealogy of David (4:17–22) carried the correction one step further by making David the great-grandson of a foreign woman.
Jehoiakim, also spelled Joakim, in the Old Testament (II Kings 23:34–24:17; Jer. 22:13–19; II Chron. 36:4–8), son of King Josiah and king of Judah (c. 609–598 BC). When Josiah died at Megiddo, his younger son, Jehoahaz (or Shallum), was chosen king by the Judahites, but the Egyptian conqueror Necho took Jehoahaz to Egypt and made Jehoiakim king. Jehoiakim reigned under the protection of Necho for some time and paid heavy tribute. When the new Chaldean Empire under Nebuchadrezzar II defeated Egypt at the Battle of Carchemish (605), however, Jehoiakim changed his allegiance from the Egyptian king to Nebuchadrezzar. He remained loyal for three years and then revolted against Nebuchadrezzar. After several battles and invasions, Nebuchadrezzar led the decisive invasion against Judah and besieged Jerusalem (598). Jehoiakim died at this time, but the circumstances of his death remain uncertain.
Abiathar Home Philosophy & Religion Religious Personages & Scholars History & Society Abiathar biblical figure Written and fact-checked by Last Updated: Article History Abiathar, in the Old Testament, son of Ahimelech, priest of Nob. He was the sole survivor of a massacre carried out by Doeg. Fleeing to David, he remained with him throughout his wanderings and his reign. He was loyal through the rebellion of Absalom, but he supported Adonijah against Solomon. Abiathar probably represents an early rival house to that of Zadok, the official priestly family of Jerusalem down to the Exile (1 Samuel 22:20–23; 2 Samuel 15:24–37; and 1 Kings 2:26–27).
Amos, (flourished 8th century BC), the first Hebrew prophet to have a biblical book named for him. He accurately foretold the destruction of the northern kingdom of Israel (although he did not specify Assyria as the cause) and, as a prophet of doom, anticipated later Old Testament prophets.
The little that is known about Amos’ life has been gleaned from his book, which was, in all likelihood, partly or wholly compiled by other hands. A native of Tekoa (now a ruin), 12 miles (19 km) south of Jerusalem, Amos flourished during the reigns of King Uzziah (c. 783–742 BC) of Judah (the southern kingdom) and King Jeroboam II (c. 786–746 BC) of Israel. By occupation, he was a shepherd; whether he was merely that or a man of some means is not certain. He actually preached for only a short time.
Under the impact of powerful visions of divine destruction of the Hebrews in such natural disasters as a swarm of locusts and fire, Amos traveled from Judah to the neighbouring richer, more powerful kingdom of Israel, where he began to preach. The time is uncertain, but the Book of Amos puts the date as two years before an earthquake that may have occurred in 750 BC. Amos fiercely castigated corruption and social injustice among Israel’s pagan neighbours, Israel itself, and Judah; he asserted God’s absolute sovereignty over man; and he predicted the imminent destruction of Israel and Judah. After preaching at Bethel, a famous shrine under the special protection of Jeroboam II, Amos was ordered to leave the country by Jeroboam’s priest Amaziah. Thereafter his fate is unknown.
From his book, Amos emerges as a thoughtful, probably well-traveled man of fierce integrity, who possessed a poet’s gift for homely but forceful imagery and rhythmic language. So distinctive is his style of expression that in many instances the reader can distinguish those portions genuinely by Amos from parts probably invented by others, such as the concluding, optimistic section foretelling the restoration of the Davidic kingdom.
As a theologian, Amos believed that God’s absolute sovereignty over man compelled social justice for all men, rich and poor alike. Not even God’s chosen people were exempt from this fiat, and even they had to pay the penalty for breaking it; hence, Amos also believed in a moral order transcending nationalistic interests.
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